Queen cells
Wombs where queens grow
Abridged version Development Finding QC Queen marking Interpreting QC Supersedure Swarm & Emergency cells
When a beekeeper inspects their bees, detecting queen cells is always on their mind. The chief reason is that queen cells can signify that the colony is about to swarm. If they swarm, the beekeeper will wave goodbye to 50-75% of the bees, the queen, and a honey crop.
The queen (Q) larva or pupa, combined with the wall surrounding her, is called a queen cell (QC). All types of cells look like unshelled peanuts, but are produced for different purposes.
A frame containing multiple queen cells of varying ages: some closed and some open brood. The Q laid in the comb as soon as it was drawn, so either the Q is laying a lot, or the workers are slow to draw wax. When the bees get the “let’s make queen cells” message in an emergency or swarming situation, they don’t do things by halves, maybe 40 cells.
The colony makes QC for three reasons:
Supersedure — for queen replacement
Swarm — to reproduce
Emergency — because the queen is lost
Supersedure and swarm cells generally result in better queens than those raised in emergency conditions because:
They are derived from larger eggs, have a larger thorax and head more productive colonies.
Larvae grow for five days rather than four.
The colony is strong enough to provide optimal nutrition.
They grow in capacious queen cups rather than cramped worker cells.
However, beekeepers, by optimising conditions, can raise decent queens using the emergency impulse.
Queen cups
The Q lays some eggs destined to become queens in queen cups/play cups (PC). Play cups have nothing to do with having fun. They look like small acorn cups. The number of PCs correlates with the colony’s propensity to swarm. This can be a selection criterion for breeder queens. I don’t know precisely what numerous means, perhaps 12.
When inspecting a colony, check every cup. If one looks polished (like a smart leather shoe), it is ready for an egg; the queen may lay in it soon. When one already contains an egg, beware. On the other hand, when there are eggs in worker cells, no eggs in cups and no QC, there is no need to find the queen. Next, I’ll discuss how QC grow and give you tips on how to find them.
Queen cell development
When fertilised eggs “hatch”, the larvae can become queens or workers. Special feeding makes a larva grow into a Q. This food is called royal jelly. It is a white liquid, and shiny white larvae float on top. Young larvae can only breathe on their upper surface. Workers can determine the nutritional status of larvae, so QC are carefully selected in an emergency.
As the larvae grow, a conical wall surrounds them. On the second day as a larva, the QC is referred to as a QC that is “two days old” or a “day two queen cell.” Do not confuse this with brood nomenclature where the age includes the egg stage; for example, worker and drone larvae that are two days old are referred to as “unsealed day five brood,” “day 5 brood” / “day 5 drone brood,” or simply “day 5.” However, to cause confusion, someone may refer to them as “day 2.” So if anyone talks about the age of brood, ask them what they mean!
Graph from Laval growth rate Thrasyvoulou, Andreas & Bentong
Duration of brood and queen development depicted as a table (worth a look)
QC grow at a phenomenal rate. Seven times heavier in the first 30 hours, 12 in the next 30, and slowing to 3 times in the final 30 hours. The best QCs have a markedly crinkled surface. Shorter QCs with smoother surfaces may be okay but not the best. Every so often, these cells produce a runt, a small good-for-nothing Q. So when bees nurture QC, do your best to ensure they have plenty of nurse bees, stores, and pollen.
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Day 3
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Day 4
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Day 4 small larva
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Late day 5
Closed QC queen development
d. 9 & 10 White mush
d.11 Pink eyes
d.12 Red/brown eyes
d. 13 Purple eyes and yellow thorax
d.14 Yellow abdomen
d.15 Looks like an adult
d.16 Emerges
When a faint brown ring forms around/partially around the tip of the QC, it signifies that the queen is about to emerge.
A Q may emerge after 15 rather than 16 days in hot weather.
What happens next depends on why the queen cells were produced. Before I discuss this, I’ll give you some tips for finding QC.
Spotting Queen Cups
It isn't easy to see eggs in PC. If in doubt, open the PC with your hive tool. A torch helps if the comb is dark; hold it close to the cup/comb. The ability to see eggs is critical. Missing an egg in a cup means the colony may swarm before the next routine inspection. Loads of bees covering the frames make it impossible to see PCs and QCs. So, if there are numerous bees, and it is the swarming season, you must shake them off the brood frames. Unpleasant bees won’t like you.
Shaking frames
Basic assessment: demonstrate how to shake bees from the comb
Some beekeepers are nifty at shaking bees off the frames whilst keeping the frame inside the box. I can only do it if I know the queen is somewhere safe. The ulnar part of the elbow joint is like a pulley, so it does not twist. It is easy to prevent forearm rotation. Your wrist can waggle everywhere, so it needs to be held rigid. Thus, all that is left is the up-down motion of the elbow, which is just what is required. But watch the pros; they do a wrist shake as well.
So I recommend you start doing shakes by holding the frame obliquely across the hive, close to the top of the frames so that the bottom bar of the frame ends up one or two inches away after the descent. Barely any bees spill off the hive's top. A queen generally falls off a frame with a small shake. If you see one QC you MUST remove the bees from the other frames.
When you’ve found one QC and bees are in the way, hold each frame upside down and do a very gentle shake or two. Avoid shaking frames as you would normally, as this could detach larvae from the bases of their cells. Critics of the upside-down shake cite the issue of equal and opposite forces, which could upset the larvae. I’ve never had a problem.
Standard advice is to brush the bees off the comb, but bees don’t like being brushed, even with deft little swipes. In addition, I’m worried that I might damage the QC.
Marking the queen
Finding a marked queen in a large colony is tricky. But it's much more straightforward than finding an unmarked queen. Marking involves dabbing a spot of paint on her thorax. When using a marker pen, please read the instructions and test it before use. Otherwise, the Q may end up paddling in a pool of ink. After applying the ink, keep her captive for a little while until the paint dries. The alternative to using a pen is a typing correct fluid brush. Both must be water-based and are obtainable from bee equipment suppliers. Some beekeepers say that the bees may ball her before the paint dries. It must be rare. A better reason is that the workers remove the paint in the blink of an eye. With dark-coloured bees, white and yellow dots stand out best. There are fancy colours that indicate her age, but if you keep good records, there is no need to bother with them.
Marking can go wrong. Her abdomen may be damaged, you might drop her, or the paint may block her breathing tubes.
fancy colours
There are devices to help with marking.
A syringe device (video). Many manufacturers make the holes in the mesh too small. Payne’s is okay (2024).
A cage of thorns / Press in cage - see below & video on Facebook.
I do not recommend the one handed device. It is difficult to see where the end is relative to the queen.
Techniques to help find the queen and mark her (good YouTube video)
A Press in Cage.
A plunger device sold by Paynes
A one handed Queen Catcher. The top is covered by flexible sheet of QE that is pushed along a groove so that it passes under the queen. The white sponge is the top of the plunger.
Both the above are sold by Thorne’s Bee Supplies.
Some people learn to pick up and mark the queen by practising on drones. Catch one by his wings using your dominant hand and pass him to your other hand. Place him on a finger and hold him in a pincer grip. Alternatively, hold him between the sides (lateral aspects) of his thorax.
Using QC elsewhere
Some QC can be used to make increase (make another colony) or re-queen another colony. However, when an unprotected QC is placed in a genetically different colony, the bees kill it. Worker bees only destroy QCs by nibbling their base, so if this is covered, the QC will survive. It is challenging to get something to stick to a cell. Wrap aluminium foil, sellotape or plumber’s tape around the QC, leaving only the tip showing. When she emerges, they usually accept her.
To transfer a cell on wax foundation to another colony, use a scalpel to cut around the cell (when it has hardened, on or after day 13). Be sure to leave a decent margin of comb around the cell so that it can be pushed into the comb of the recipient colony. Alternatively, move the whole frame and use a push-in cage so that the Q is trapped after she emerges and can be introduced to the new colony in the cage or by some other introduction method.
Interpreting Queen cells
A day one/two and two/three QCs. It is more reliable to assess the size of larvae than the size of the cell. Note one QC has been broken open, and three bees are cleaning up. Bees that look blackish are referred to as “dark” or black. The rare native British Black bee is called Apis mellifera mellifera. This unimaginative nomenclature translates “Bee honey honey”.
Supersedure cells
Supersedure usually takes place in the autumn and not infrequently at other times. The colony does this when the pheromonal balance indicates that the (old, failing or infirm) queen should be replaced. One to three QC of the same age are indicative of supersedure. Four QC should signify that it is not supersedure, but you can never be sure about bees.
As a rule, at least one queen cell is situated in the centre of a frame. It is incredible how a colony can count up to three! It is not so wonderful that the old but perfectly good queen (or so she seems) may be on the cusp of disappearing. There may be normal, reduced amount or no open brood.
Typically, the old queen dies before or shortly after the new queen gets laying; this is called imperfect supersedure. Much less common is perfect supersedure, which is when the mother Q and daughter work together until the daughter takes over in the autumn or spring.
It is easy to miss a QC, so finding an unmarked queen may be the first sign of supersedure.
A wild surprise is when a colony swarms on a supersedure cell. It is rare and quirky and should never happen.
Once a colony wants to supersede, you can’t stop them! Probably, yes. I destroyed all the Q cells in six superseding colonies. Subsequently, one queen died, four colonies made more QC, and the sixth did not bother to make any more. If you keep cutting QC, the chances are that the colony will fail to produce more QC within six weeks. Once, I rescued a queen who was being superseded. The workers built more QC but changed their mind and tore them down. Initially, the Q looked groggy. I thought she would die; however, 23 days later, two frames were covered wall-to-wall with sealed brood. By the end of the year, the colony was strong. The home colony produced a new queen and, after four weeks, superseded her.
A potent cause of supersedure is a poorly mated queen. It occurs within 12 months if she stores less than 3 million sperm. Poor mating affects some beekeepers more than others. Queens can fly five miles to mate, but if you only have a few colonies and the nearest apiary is six miles away, you’ve got a problem. Wet, cool, windy weather doesn’t help.
The other common time for supersedure is following the introduction of a new queen. To prevent this, introduce her to a nuc first and only introduce her to the large colony once she has produced some sisters. Failing this, If the recipient colony has no open brood, give them one frame at the time of introduction. The open brood will make the Q more acceptable.
Colony imbalance: As I’ve explained elsewhere, a colony has no leader. It acts by “group think”. If things go awry and the standard colony adjustments don’t work, even if the queen is laying okay, the backstop position is to replace her. This has been demonstrated with nosema. My experience suggests that it occurs when a colony fails due to a large varroa infestation or after being mucked about by two or three Demaree manipulations performed in succession. So, there may be nothing wrong with the queen per se, it is a systemic problem.
Swarm cells
Multiple QC are present. Apparently, swarm cells may, on average, be paler than emergency cells. There are insufficient PCs, so many QC arise from worker brood, just like emergency cells. Whilst the queens are growing, the incumbent queen is fed less so that she becomes able to fly, and lays fewer eggs than you would anticipate. On the day before she swarms, there may be no eggs. Exceptionally, a worker has been seen transferring an egg from a worker cell to a PC. Whilst small colonies like nucs can swarm, it is rare. They swarm if they run out of space.
A Q should still be present if all the QC are open, but she may have flown the nest if even one cell is closed. If there are plenty of bees, do something before she swarms. Close the entrance to ensure she doesn’t fly out, and then do something to stop them swarming — a manipulation.
Emergency cells
In their urgency, they raise QC from day five brood. As with a swarm, there are loads of QC with a wide age range. Queens raised like this may be small but usually function okay. Subsequently, once the new colony gets laying, they may supersede her.
Ideally, when you find emergency cells, eliminate the inferior Qs raised from day five larvae by destroying all the sealed QC on day four. Don’t worry if you don’t manage this.
QC on the face of the comb resemble human noses as only 2/3 of the QC is outside the enlarged worker cell (they cannot use PC). So, the QC appear small.
If there is a sudden cut-off in the brood age but no QC, then the queen is probably in the supers, or she stopped laying for a few days and then died, which is improbable but possible.
If the age of the oldest QC corresponds with your last inspection, you killed her! Use a brood calendar to help explain this.
Information about queenless colonies
Poor quality Queen Cells
Even with apparent good nutrition and plenty of bees, scrub QC arise. There may be a lot of open brood that eats up pollen or insufficient nurse bees. For whatever reason, the QC length may be 10 mm, so the queens have small abdomens, which makes them difficult to find. Avert this by sampling some QC.
Managing QC is pivotal to keeping bees
One egg in a PC does not necessarily result in swarming, but if you look three days later and the cup has a pool of white royal jelly at the bottom, this is called a charged cup. Once a cup is charged, a QC will follow. In an emergency, they are desperate to raise queens and may produce suboptimal QC. Small QC are suspect. If there are several closed QC, open a few with a scalpel to check they are bona fide. Rarely, cells may be empty apart from a maggot or contain little white mush. An excessively long QC or ones on a frame full of drone brood are duds.
Even master beekeepers find it challenging to differentiate emergency from swarm cells.
Emergency QC
Workers have broken down two old QC.
When a queen emerges, the tip of her cell often swings up like a trap door.
What to do if you can’t see the queen and there are plenty of bees in the hive
This situation has one of two causes: you can not find the Q, or she is not there!
When you see queen cells for the first time, it can make all you know go up in smoke. So have a cup of tea or a bit of a tipple. Then, check the hive for eggs, the queen, and bees and inspect the brood area. Sort out what your observations mean.
If you are stumped or overwhelmed, use a swarm trap or call for help. However, just supposing you can spot eggs and feel adventurous, try this: Kill all the QCs (so long as there are eggs), split the colony into two equal parts and place them side by side. After 76 hours, look for eggs. If present in one portion, congratulations, you know where the queen is; they are swarming. If both parts beget eggs, there are two queens! But if there are no eggs in both portions, either you find it challenging to see eggs, or there isn’t a queen, she has stopped laying or is stuck in the supers. Look for Queenless Movement Behaviour. If you think you’ve muffed up and there are no eggs and no young brood, use a test frame to determine whether the colony is queenless.
Summary
If the queen is present and there are more than three QC, they are swarming do a manipulation.
If the queen seems absent, it could be an emergency. The ultimate fail-safe way to know whether a queen is present is to sieve the bees through a queen excluder. This is the absolute option of last resort. Don’t do it!
“Where have all the bees gone?”= swarmed — leave one queen cell and destroy the rest.
If many queens have emerged, either release one queen and destroy the rest or release all the queens.
If there are three queen cells or less = supersedure, leave them to get on with it.
The most likely cause of QC is swarming.
For a summary about managing queen cells, look at the page on manipulations.
Queens only mate reliably in fine weather; in Southern Britain, this is June.
To interpret QC correctly, it helps to know the gestation/brood times (in days).
Brood times
Basic assessment: able to state the periods spent by the female castes and drones in the four periods of their development.
Knowing the timing of brood development is vital. You need this to interpret what is happening in a colony.
In the diagram above, the numbers on each block represent days. The blocks on the left represent the days they live as eggs and larvae, while the blocks on the right represent the number of days spent pupating (as sealed brood).
All castes spend three days as an egg.
Next up, the good side of swarming - Catching one.
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